Ancient Peruvian art shows sexual encounters not only among the living but also with underworld ancestors (Uku Pacha). These scenes seek to excite the ancestors so that semen and other fluids, like the coming of water, ensure the earth’s fertility. Women appear as receptive vessels and as generators of fluids—touched, caressed, penetrated, pregnant, giving birth, and nurturing—while men are shown as emitters and fertilizers, but also as passive recipients, especially when depicted as cadaverous beings of the underworld, whose sexuality remains active and vitalizes the earth from within. Rituals of fellatio and masturbation, often involving priests and an archetypal Pachamama figure, use the “canchero” bowl, whose opening may represent a woman’s mouth or vagina, in ceremonies probably tied to agricultural fertility.

According to Andean thought, life on this earth exists through the continual interaction of opposing yet complementary forces. Night yields to day, earth receives the fertilizing waters, and the female body accepts male seed so that new life can form. These creative unions occur among humans and other animals alike, ensuring the continuity of existence in the Kay Pacha, the living world.

One key expression of this principle is the union of man and woman, understood as complementary opposites following the pattern of a primordial couple. As with the nourishing earth, the mother feeds and protects her children so that they grow and in turn bear fruit, securing the community’s future. This dynamic is framed by concepts such as yanantin, the relational pair of opposites that require one another, and tinkuy, the generative encounter from which new life emerges.

The child born of this union is sustained by the mother’s milk, just as plants depend on water and soil. Breastfeeding is seen as a powerful act that manifests the female capacity to nourish and protect, and has been depicted across cultures and eras. Even divine beings in Andean narratives are shown as infants who must be cared for before becoming heroes, gods, or prophets.

Ancient Peruvian art also portrays other forms of sexual activity that do not lead directly to procreation, situating them within a broader sacred landscape. Some scenes associate non-procreative acts with the world of the dead and the Uku Pacha, the inner or underworld, where dormant forces are activated to irrigate and fertilize the earth. Other images show humans engaging with mythical beings or ancestors. Together, these representations emphasize that sexuality was understood not merely as a private act, but as a vital part of cosmic balance, renewal, and the circulation of life between different realms.

Ancient Peruvian agricultural societies depended on making the land productive and keeping natural cycles stable: favorable climate, rain arriving in time and in sufficient quantity, fertile soil, and organized human labor. They imagined the universe as three divine realms: the sky, source of rain; the earth, which had to be worked; and the subterranean world, where crops emerged and the dead went.

Each realm was symbolized by a dominant animal: birds of prey such as eagles, owls, or condors for the heavens; felines such as jaguars or pumas for the earth; and serpents (or spiders) for the underworld. Before the Spanish arrived, the principal Andean deities bore the features of these animals, expressing the sacred character of sky, land, and subterranean world.

In ancient Peru, the true value of gold lay in its role as a symbol of royal identity and supernatural power. Much has been written about the quantities of gold taken by the Spanish conquerors, but metallurgical analysis shows that many ceremonial items were made from alloys with relatively low gold content. Highly developed techniques allowed Andean metalworkers to create large, thin sheets and voluminous objects using very little precious metal, often giving copper-based pieces the appearance of pure gold.

This raises a question: what, exactly, did the conquerors seize—and what did the conquered peoples lose? In terms of raw metal, the amount of gold and silver extracted by melting down ceremonial ornaments and elite garments was modest. The great wealth taken by the Spanish came instead from intensive mining, especially of silver later converted into coinage.

Yet the emotional and cultural loss far outweighed the metal recovered. The destruction and removal of sacred emblems and prestige objects meant a profound loss of power and identity for Andean societies. Today, these surviving artifacts are invaluable not for their bullion content but as material evidence of how ancient Peruvians understood the world. They are essential components of our cultural memory and key to recovering the worldview of the societies that created them.

In many religions, collective rites sought to secure cosmic order and favorable changes in nature. As an agricultural society, the Moche worshiped natural forces and saw human sacrifice as essential to maintaining balance and preventing disasters such as those linked to El Niño. Their ceramics reveal a major ceremonial sequence that began with ritual combat and ended with the sacrifice of the defeated.

Finely adorned warriors fought hand to hand, aiming to remove the opponent’s headdress rather than kill him, since the goal was to obtain victims. The vanquished were stripped, bound, and led in procession to the temple, where priests and priestesses prepared them for sacrifice. At least one captive was bled to death, his blood offered to the principal deities to appease and please them.

This chronological scheme outlines Peruvian history from the Lower Archaic (10,000–6,000 BCE), with sites such as Paiján, Lauricocha, and Guitarrero, through the Upper Archaic (6,000–1,000 BCE), marked by early agriculture and village life at Huaca Prieta, Asia, Chilca, Lauricocha, and Kotosh. The Early Horizon (1,000–200 BCE) centers on Chavín and Paracas traditions and monuments like Chavín de Huántar and Garagay, while the Early Intermediate (200–600) includes Mochica, Gallinazo, Cajamarca, Lima, Nazca, Recuay, and Pucará. In the Middle Horizon (600–1,000), Huari and Tiahuanaco dominate, with sites such as Huari, Cajamarquilla, and Lukurmata.

The Late Intermediate (1,000–1,476) features Chimú, Lambayeque, Sicán, Chancay, Ichma, Chincha, Chachapoyas, and Aymara kingdoms, with major centers like Chan Chan, Pachacamac, and Tambo Colorado. The Inca Horizon (1,476–1,532) unites much of the Andes from Cusco and Cajamarca, with monuments such as Machu Picchu and Sacsayhuamán. The sequence ends with the Conquest (1,532–1,535) and Spanish domination (1,535–1,821), linked to world processes from the last glacial period and early agriculture to ancient Mesopotamia and Persia, imperial Rome and Christianity, Islam and Byzantium, Mesoamerican civilizations, the European Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and great geographic discoveries.

In ancient Peru, the colors of gold and silver—associated with the sun and the moon, their luminous sheen and apparent permanence—made these metals expressions of supernatural power. Today we live surrounded by artificial light and reflective surfaces, but more than two thousand years ago only the stars shone in the sky. Likewise, in a world largely free of mechanical noise, sound and brilliance seemed ethereal and otherworldly.

When shiny metals such as gold and silver were discovered, ruling elites quickly assumed control of mining and metalworking. Goldsmiths occupied privileged positions, working in close contact with political and religious leaders. Through techniques that must have seemed mysterious, they transformed raw elements into dazzling, resonant objects designed to endure.

These creations adorned the bodies of rulers during ceremonies performed atop pyramids. There, leaders glittered like the sun and moon and produced sounds reminiscent of wind or water, reinforcing their divine aura and their status as earthly representatives of the gods. Common people, unable to comprehend how these lords shone and rang with such intensity, were awed and bowed before their power.

For Europeans, precious metals have long been measured primarily by economic value. To appreciate the metalwork of ancient Peru, we must set aside that narrowly monetary view and recognize that, for pre-Hispanic societies, such objects carried profound religious, political, and cosmological significance that far exceeded their material worth.

The conquest occurred while Indigenous populations were being decimated by diseases of European origin. These already weakened communities were further affected by political and economic changes and by military confrontations. The encounter between Catholic Spain and the Indigenous cultures of the Americas was a dramatic clash between two ways of understanding the world and the relationship between society and the supernatural.

One of the main effects of the Spanish conquest was the introduction of the Catholic faith. In this process, huacas—places and objects sacred to Indigenous peoples—were destroyed, as were the mallquis, the bodies of Inca ancestors venerated by their communities. These actions formed part of the campaign known as the “Extirpation of Idolatries.”

Human sacrifice was practiced by many ancient cultures. Death, the shedding of blood, and ritual mutilation transformed the victim, whose life offered to the gods acquired a sacred status (sacrum facere). Sacrifice stands at the center of almost all religions, and today symbolic forms of sacrifice still appear in some religious practices.

Among the Moche, ritual combat between warriors seems to have selected candidates for sacrifice from among the most productive members of society; the community offered one of its most valued assets in exchange for collective well-being, in an act of giving and receiving. Similar practices are described in Mesoamerica, where Aztec “Flower Wars” and some Maya ball games ended in ritual sacrifice, and in other regions, including Celtic, Scandinavian, Greek, Carthaginian, Roman, and Eastern traditions.