2022 © Maxim Tabachnik
The spices in these pies were often obtained by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) through violence and slavery. Cloves came from Ambon, one of the Moluccan islands, which was conquered by the VOC in 1605. The Ambonese had to harvest cloves alongside workers enslaved by the VOC. Nutmeg came from the Banda Islands (south of Ambon), which were taken by force in 1621. Enslaved people had to pick the nutmeg seeds on plantations and strip off their covering (aril).
Slavery in Asia, Africa or the Americas was long common and difficult to eliminate. The first Rembrandts were sold to buyers in the 1630s. Enslaved persons might be born into slavery or sold abroad by their own authorities. According to researchers at the Rijksmuseum and Amsterdam Museum, the city of Amsterdam shared in the benefits of the slave trade. One of Rembrandt’s sitters, for example, was an enslaved man. After his arrival he was still not free, and he was also able to sue for that freedom.
After the death of her husband Marten Soolmans, Oopjen married Maerten Daey. Before their marriage Daey had spent a few years in Brazil. The tragic story of the enslaved Francisca has come down to us from contemporary sources. Daey had taken her captive, locked her up, and raped her multiple times. When it turned out that Francisca was pregnant, he sent her away and refused to recognise their daughter Elunam.
Marten and Oopjen owed their wealth to slave labour. In Amsterdam Marten’s father, and later the couple themselves, made a fortune from the refining of raw sugar from Brazil. It had been cultivated, harvested and processed there by Africans who had been enslaved. Sugar had become very popular in Europe in a short period of time, and a great deal of money was made from it. The demand in Europe was met in large part by the Amsterdam sugar industry. This enormous production would not have been possible without the large-scale deployment of people in slavery.
Self-Portrait as the Apostle PaulRembrandt van Rijn
Rembrandt van Rijn’s 1661 self-portrait as Apostle Paul uniquely combines his likeness with the biblical figure. This oil on canvas is his only self-depiction in a religious guise. Traditional symbols of Paul, like the sword and manuscript, are present, yet Rembrandt humanizes the apostle, portraying him as an ordinary person. By integrating his own features, Rembrandt invites viewers to connect personally with the saint, bridging the sacred and the everyday.
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